By 2023, around 60 million people were using opioids, making it the second highest number after cannabis drugs (219 million).
Estimate by the UNODC
The poppy plant
The poppy (genus Papaver) combines unique beauty, usefulness, and controversy. Species in this genus contain several dozen alkaloids — natural nitrogen compounds that affect the nervous system. In the best‑known species, the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), up to sixty different alkaloids have been identified. From a pharmaceutical standpoint, the three main morphinan alkaloids are:
- morphine,
- codeine, and
- thebaine.
In smaller amounts, oripavine is also present — a compound similar to morphine but markedly toxic. According to Wilde et al. (2019), codeine displays roughly one‑tenth the addictiveness of morphine. Thebaine itself is not considered addictive but is toxic.
From medicine to narcotic
A high alkaloid content gives Papaver somniferum enormous pharmaceutical potential but also makes it a matter of concern for governments and regulatory agencies worldwide. Cultivation of such poppy varieties is banned or tightly controlled in many countries — especially where diversion for the illicit manufacture of opiates is a risk.
Even today, in some regions the poppy is still grown specifically to collect opium directly from the plant. This process forms the basis of illegal heroin production, a major international issue. In recent years, however, trends have shifted: the illicit opiate market is gradually giving way to synthetic opioids, and the geography of opium poppy cultivation has also been changing.
Antiquity
Historical records frequently mention that the liquid extracted from the seed capsule (poppy head) has both medicinal and narcotic effects. It is therefore likely that poppies were cultivated for those reasons since ancient times.
The Opium Wars (1839 – 1860)
Conflicts between European powers (mainly Great Britain but also France) and Imperial China were triggered primarily by disputes over the poppy — that is, over free trade in opium in East Asia.
- The First Opium War (1839 – 1842) began after China banned opium and ordered the destruction of foreign opium stocks held by British merchants and the British East India Company. In retaliation, Britain sent a naval expedition to compel China to pay reparations and reopen the opium trade.
- The Second Opium War (1856 – 1860), fought by Britain and France against China, forced China to legalize opium. By the end of the 19th century, an estimated 10 % of the Chinese population was addicted to opium.
In each of these wars, the military superiority of the European powers led to swift victories and treaties that granted them:
- favorable customs tariffs,
- trade concessions and reparations,
- and territorial rights.
This era (1839 – 1945) entered Chinese history as the “Century of Humiliation.” China was compelled to open roughly 80 treaty ports (including Shanghai) to Western traders — mainly Britain, France, and the USA, with lesser participation by Russia, Germany, and others. China also ceded sovereignty over Hong Kong to Britain, which retained control until 1997. Outer Manchuria and Sakhalin remained under Russia.
20th Century
Governments worldwide turned their focus to combating drug addiction, including the use of opium and heroin. As a result, poppy cultivation became illegal in most of the world, strictly prosecuted and controlled.
1997
Establishment of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in Vienna — the UN body for crime prevention and criminal justice, overseen by the UN Commission on Crime Prevention and the Commission on Narcotic Drugs.
Late 20th Century
The main global suppliers of illegal opium and heroin became Afghanistan — part of the Golden Crescent region (Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan). Another key area was the Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos). Both regions have long histories of opium cultivation and heroin production for worldwide distribution.
Up to 2022
Afghanistan remained the world’s largest producer of opium — about 90 % of the global illicit market (≈ 232,000 ha of opium poppy yielding ≈ 6,200 t of opium). Other producers included Myanmar, Iran, Pakistan, Laos, and several Latin American countries (Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia).
2023
Estimating global opium production is now difficult. After the Taliban took power, Afghanistan sharply reduced large‑scale opium poppy cultivation. Myanmar and Mexico have since become the largest illegal producers.
2025 – Myanmar
In 2025, opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar reached a ten‑year high — 53,100 ha, up 17 % from previous years (UNODC data). Average yields are ~ 20 kg of opium per hectare: more than 1,000 t in total. A key driver is the price of raw opium, which rose from ≈ 160 USD/kg (2019) to ≈ 365 USD/kg (2025). UNODC warns that if heroin shortages from Afghanistan spur demand for Southeast Asian opiates, this trend may continue.
2025 – Afghanistan
Total area under opium poppy fell to 10,200 ha — down 20 % from 2024 (12,800 ha) and 96 % lower than 2022 (232,000 ha). The price of dried opium in 2025 dropped 27 % to 570 USD/kg (from 780 USD in 2024) but still remains five times higher than before the cultivation ban (UNODC data).
Table: Illegal Poppy Cultivation – Area in ha (UNODC Estimate)
| Country | 2011 – 2020 | 2022 | 2025 |
| Afghanistan | 208 000 ha | 233 000 ha | 10 200 ha |
| Laos | 4 787 ha | ? | ? |
| Myanmar | 40 640 ha | 40 100 ha | 53 100 ha |
| Colombia | 334 ha | ? | ? |
| Mexico | 20 600 ha | ? | ? |
| Others | 16 905 ha | 42 684 ha | ? |
| Total | 315 784 ha | ? | ? |
Conclusion
As agriculture‑based opiate production declines, criminal organizations are switching to synthetic opioids, which offer:
- easier and cheaper manufacturing,
- harder detection, and
- greater resistance to climate and supply fluctuations.
Source: Mikšík V., Lohr V. (2026). History of the Poppy as a Drug, Trade in Opium and Heroin (CZech lang). In 25th Poppy Newsletter: The Poppy in 2026. Czech University of Life Sciences Prague. ISBN 978‑80‑213‑3546‑2.